41 
C7 


LIBRARY 

Univ«r*i»Y 

IRVINE 


Columbia  University. 

Department  of  Geology 

Syllabus  of  Historical  Geology 

BY 

PROFESSOR  A.  W.  GRABAU 


v 


NEW    YORK: 

A.  G.  SE1LER,  PUBLISHER 

IQI2 


QE 
W 
C7 


COLUMBIA  UNIVERSITY 

DEPARTMENT  OF  GEOLOGY 

Syllabus  of  Historical  Geology 

BY 
Professor  A.  W.  GRABAU 


Definition:  Historical  Geology  treats  of  the 
history  of  the  earth  and  its  inhabitants  from  the  be- 
ginning to  the  present  time. 

Three  Aspects:  I  Stratigraphy:  History  of 
Rocky  frame  work — chiefly  of  the  stratified  rocks 
or  Strata.  II  Palaeontology:  History  of  life  of  the 
earth.  Ill  Physiography:  History  of  development 
of  surface  features. 

1      STRATIGRAPHY:      Represented  by  maps  and 
sections.     Sections  are: 

1  Natural  or  cross-sections  giving  succession 
and  structure. 

2  Columnar  Sections — giving  succession  and 
thickness  of  rocks  only. 

3  Ideal  sections — restoring  former  conditions. 

1 


TABLE  OF  GEOLOGIC  FORMATIONS. 

Psychozoic  or  Quaternary. 

Holocenic  or  recent 
Pleistocenic 

Cenozoic  or  Tertiary. 
Pliocenic 
Miocenic 
Oligocenic 
Eocenic 

Mesozoic  or  Secondary. 
Cretacic 
Comanchic 
Jurassic 
Triassic 

Palaeozoic  or  Transition. 
Permic 

Carbonic  (Pennsylvanic) 
Mississippi 
Devonic 
Siluric 
Ordovicic 
Cambric 

Eozoic  (Proterozoic)  or  Primary  in  Part. 
Algonkic  or  Huronic 

Azoic  (Archaeozoic)  or  Primary. 
Archaeic 


GEOLOGICAL  HORIZON.  A  given  level  in  the 
geological  column — recognizable  by  fossils  or 
otherwise  at  different  localities.  A  certain  mo- 
ment in  the  geological  history  of  the  earth. 

ERA,  PERIOD,  EPOCH,  AGE.  Successive  divi- 
sions of  geologic  time. 

DIVISION,  SYSTEM,  SERIES,  STAGE.  Cor- 
responding divisions  of  the  geological  column. 

FORMATION.  The  geological  unit — character- 
ized by  similarity  of  lithological  features  and  or- 
ganic remains.  Formations  are  named  from  the 
locality  where  best  developed  and  first  studied 
then  becomes  the  type  locality. 

GROUP.  A  division  of  the  geological  column  of 
variable  value  comprising  two  or  more  formations, 
according  as  used — Hamilton  group,  Monroe 
group,  etc. 

STRATUM.  A  single  lithological  unit.  A  layer 
or  bed — bedded  formations  are  stratified. 

SUPERPOSITION  OF  STRATA  OR  FORMA- 
TIONS. The  original  order  of  succession  in  which 
the  strata  or  formations  were  deposited. 

CORRELATION.  The  identification  of  strata  or 
formations  of  equal  age,  i.e.,  formed  at  the  same 
time,  over  wide  areas,  by  various  means,  such  as 
superposition,  lithologic  and  stratigraphic  con- 
tinuity, organic  contents,  etc. 

II.  PALAEONTOLOGY.  The  Study  of  Fossils. 
"Fossils  are  the  remains  of  animals  or  plants,  or 
the  direct  record  of  their  presence,  preserved  in  the 
rocks  of  the  earth's  crust  from  the  earliest  to  the 
present  time." 


INDEX  FOSSILS.  Characteristic  fossils  by 
which  a  given  geological  horizon  may  be  recognized 
at  different  localities. 

LABORATORY     WORK     WITH     RECENT     AND 
FOSSIL  PLANTS. 

Trays  A.  1-10. 

I.  PROTOPHYTA.      The       simplest       unicellular 

plants  of  low  organization.  They  in- 
clude the  Bacteria,  which  are  known 
from  the  Palaeozoic  on,  often  placed 
under  the  Algae. 

II.  THALLOPHYTA.      Comprise     plants     of  low 

order  consisting  of  a  "thallus"  which 
shows  no  differentiation  into  stem, 
leaf  or  root.  They  include — 

1.  Algae, 

2.  Fungi, 

3.  Lichens. 

1.  ALGAE,  or  sea  weeds  are  divisible  into 
three  groups,  according  to  their  coloring  matter, 
viz:  (a)  Green  algae,  (b)  Brown  algae,  and  (c) 
Red  algae. 

(The  Bacteria,  etc.,  are  often  included  as  a 
separate  group — the  Blue-green  algae.) 

(a  ) Green  Algae — Represented  by  modern  sea 
lettuce  (Ulva)  a  thin  bright  green  leaf  like  thallus, 
common  on  seashore.  Many  forms  secrete  lime 
as  Halinieda  \vhirh  is  common  on  coral  reefs  and 
(1  a)  the  common  stone-wort  found  in  fresh 
;r  pools  and  lakes;  it  makes  fresh  water  marl 
and  limestone.  The  spore  fruit  is  globular  or  ovoid 
with  spiral  ridges  and  is  often  found  fossil.  (Ib) 

(b)  Brown  Algae — Often  of  large  size,  as  the 
common  Devil's  Apron,  or  Laminaria  (Ic)  which 

4 


grows  3  or  4  metres  in  length  with  a  stout  stalk 
ending  in  a  branching  rootlike  manner,  grasping 
stones  or  shells.  The  blade,  stalk  and  "root"  com- 
monly covered  with  great  variety  of  organisms. 
Giant  kelp  of  the  Pacific  (Macrocystis)  said  some- 
times to  reach  a  length  of  three  hundred  meters. 
The  common  rock  weed,  Fu£u^_vesiculfifiu.s  (Id) 
covers  rocks  between  tide.  Furnished  with  air 
bladders;  usually  has  many  animals  (bryozoa,  hy- 
droids,  etc.)  attached.  The  Gulf  weed  Sargassum 
is  closely  related.  Found  south  from  Cape  Cod, 
floats  in  Sargassum  sea.  Many  animals  live  on  it. 

The  Diatoms  ( le)  are  miscroscopic  brown  algae 
secreting  a  siliceous  skeleton  which  is  preserved. 
Habitat  planktonic  in  open  sea  or  benthonic  on 
other  seaweeds ;  also  in  fresh  water.  Capable  of 
motion.  Skeleton  a  highly  ornate  transparent 
"frustule" — of  two  parts  "box  and  lid"  like; 
forms  diatomaceous  earth  (l)t^  often  of  great 
thickness  as  under  Richmond,  Va. 

(c)  Red  Algae — of  many  shades,  mostly  marine. 
Chondrus  crispus  or  Irish  moss  is  collected  as  food. 
Many  microscopic.  Several  secrete  lime,  i.e.,  the 
Coralline  seaweed  or  Nullipore.  Corallina,  a 
branching  brittle  form,  Lithothamnion  (2)/  forms 
pink  encrustations  on  stones,  smooth  or  knobby. 
Becomes  white  when  dry.  Important  on  coral  reefs. 

Fucoids  (3)  a  name  applied  to  impressions  on 
rock  believed  to  be  of  fossil  seaweeds. 

2.  FUNGI,  low  terrestrial  plants,  destitute  of 
chlorophyl  or  leaf-green,  depend  for  food  on 
organic  matter  either  living  (parasitic)  or  dead 
( saprophytic ) .  They  include  the  rusts,  mildews, 
smuts,  etc.,  and  the  toadstools,  mushrooms  and 
shelf  fungi  (Polyporous,  Daedalia,  etc.)  (4)  com- 
monly growing  on  trees. 

5 


3.  LICHENS— Terrestrial  plants  formed  of  fungi 
growing  in  intimate  (symbiotic)  association  with 
various  forms  of  algae.  Cover  stones,  tree 
trunks,  fences  etc.,  as  a  grayish  curly  crust,  often 
with  reddish-brown  cup-like  spore  fruits  (Par- 
melia)  ( 5 ) ,  or  hang  in  tufts  from  branches  of  trees 
in  swamps,  etc.,  like  the  long  gray  Usnea  (5a). 

m.  BRYOPHYTA.  Mosses.  These  are  for  the 
most  part  land  plants,  growing  in  woods  and 
swamps,  with  stems  and  leaves  and  fruit  spores. 
They  include  the  Liverworts  like  the  scale  moss 
(Madotheca) ,  the  true  mosses  (musci)  which  in- 
clude the  Peat  mosses, 'Hypnum  and  Spjhagnum. 
(6),  the  hairy  cap  moss  (Polytrichum)  (6a),  the 
pine  tree  moss  (Clemacium)  (6b)  and  many 
others.  Mosses  are  rare  as  fossils. 

IV.  PTERIDOPHYTA  or  Fern  plants.  The  high- 
est of  the  flowerless  plants  or  Cryptogams.  They 
include  (1)  the  horse  tails  or  Equisetales,  (2)  the 
Club  mosses  or  Lycopodales,  (3)  the  extinct 
Sphenophyllales,  and  (4)  the  Ferns  or  Filicales. 

1.  Equisetales  or  horse  tails — represented  by 
the  living  genus,  Equisetum  (6c)  growing  in  low 
moist  ground,  and  along  railroad  embankments. 
It  has  a  creeping  root  stock  of  a  meter  or  more  in 
length,  and  two  kinds  of  branches — a  coarse  one, 
bearing  a  spore  cone,  and  a  slender  sterile  one  with 
many  branches,  both  are  jointed  and  hollow.  Plant 
rough  and  gritty,  due  to  presence  of  flint  particles. 
Fossil  representatives  of  this  group  are  the  Cala- 
mites  (6d)  which  grew  to  the  size  of  trees  in  Car- 
bonic time  from  30  to  60  meters  high.  They  had  a 
thicker  wall,  and  were  generally  preserved  as 
stony  casts. 


2.  Lycopods,     or    Club    mosses    include    the 
ground  pine  Lycopodium  (6e)  of  our  woods,  bear- 
ing   leaves    and    numerous    spores     (Lycopodium 
powder)   and  the  extinct  tree -like  Sigillaria   (6f) 
with  their  trunks  marked  by  leaf  scars  in  vertical 
rows  and  Lepidodendron   (6g)   with  the  scars  in 
spirals.      The  creeping  root  of  these  is  called  Stig- 
maria  (6h)  and  bore  many  rootlets. 

3.  Sphenophyllum  (6i)  consists  of  long  slender 
stems  with  whorls  of  leafs.     Entirely  extinct. 

7.  Ferns — include  (a)  the  common  forms 
(6j)  which  are  represented  by  numerous  genera 
and  species,  mostly  low — some  forming  low 
trees  (in  tropics).  The  frond  consists  of  a  stipe  or 
leaf  stalk  arising  from  an  underground  stem  or 
rhizome  and  the  blade,  often  divided  into  many 
pinnules.  Fruit  in  form  of  spores,  often  on  under- 
side of  frond.  (b)  The  Water  ferns  or  Rhizo- 
carps  (6k)  which  live  in  water,  often  floating, 
spores  of  such  types  (Protosalvinia)  (61)  occur  in 
quantities  in  black  shales  of  Ohio,  etc.,  and  are  be- 
lieved to  be  source  of  petroleum.  (c)  Palaeozoic 
forms  and  cycad  ferns  (7)  many  of  them  of  a 
higher  order  than  living  ferns  and  related  to  the 
Spermaphytes. 

V.  SPERMAPHYTA  or  seed  plants.  These  in- 
clude Gymnosperms  or  naked  seeded  plants,  and 
the  Angiosperms,  or  covered  seed  plants. 

A.  The  Gymnosperms  include  conifers,  cycads, 
joint  firs,  and  the  extinct  Cordaites  (8)  with  strap- 
shaped  leaves.  Cycads  are  palm-like  plants  com- 
mon in  the  Mesozoic.  Conifers  begin  in  the  late 
Palaeozoic  and  are  represented  to-day  by  the  yews 
(Taxus),  the  Japanese  gingko,  the  pines,  spruce, 
fir,  hemlock,  tamarack,  cypress,  arbor  vitae,  etc. 


B.  The  Angiosperms  include  the  remaining 
flowering  plants  and  are  divided  into : 

1.  Monocotyledons,   or  endogenous  plants  in- 
cluding the  lilies,   palms,   the  grasses    (including 
the   cereals)    banana,    ginger,    etc.,    orchids,    the 
water  plantain  and  arrow  head  and  others — pond- 
weed  (including  the  eel  grass,  Zostera   (8d),  the 
cat  tail,   etc.      They  have  mostly  parallel  veined 
leaves    and    flowers    in    parts    of    threes.      Their 
growth  is  from  within.     They  first  appear  in  the 
early  Mesozoic. 

2.  Dicotyledons,    or   exogenous   plants,    which 
include  the  largest  number  of  plants  such  as  the 
butter  cup,  rose,  pink,  etc.,  with  separate  petals, 
(Choripetalae   or  Polypetalae),    the   honeysuckle, 
huckleberry,  lilac,   etc.,  with  petals  more  or  less 
united  (Gamopetalae)  and  the  Buckwheat,  sorrel, 
pepper,  mistletoe,  nettle,  etc.,  without  petals  (Ap- 
etalae).   Under  these  groups  are  also  included  the 
common  deciduous  trees    (oak,  maple,  tulip,  wil- 
low,   etc.).      Dicotyledons   first    appeared   in    the 
Cretacic.  (8f). 

LABORATORY  WORK  WITH  RECENT  AND 

FOSSIL  ANIMALS. 
Trays  A.  1-10-continued. 
I.      PROTOZOA. 

1.  Foraminif era :  Globigerina  (9a),  one  of  the 
common  forms  leading  pelagic  (planktonic)  life  in 
open  ocean.  Shells  accumulate  as  Globigerina  ooze 
on  ocean  bottom.  Note  successively  added  cham- 
bers and  foramina  or  pores.  Orbiculina  (9)  a  shal- 
low water  form,  abounds  in  sand  of  coral  islands  in 
tropics.  Note  successive  addition  of  linear  cham- 
bers, also  spreading  of  form. 


Nummulites  (10)  A  fossil  foraminiferon 
abounding  in  Eocenic  seas.  Note  numerous  cham- 
bers enclosing  one  another. 

Chalk  (11)  is  largely  composed  of  microscopic 
foraminifera  besides  other  calcareous  organisms. 
In  the  slide  (lla)  note  Textularia  one  of  the  com- 
mon types,  with  cells  arranged  biserially,  and  Rota- 
lia  with  cells  arranged  in  spiral  (Cretacic  age). 

2.  Radiolaria — Protozoa  of  pelagic  (plank- 
tonic)  habitat.  The  highly  ornate  siliceous  or  glass 
shells  are  internal  and  accumulate  in  deeper  part 
of  sea  forming  radiolarian  ooze.  Barbadoes  earth 
(12a),  fossil  radiolarian  ooze  from  Barbadoes; 
radiolarite  (12b)  a  flinty  or  cherty  rock  composed 
largely  of  the  shells  of  radiolaria. 

II     PORIFERA: 

Sponges — Main  mass  of  dried  specimens 
(13)  consists  of  net- work  of  horny  fibres — the 
supporting  structure  from  which  flesh  has  been 
removed.  It  encloses  one  or  more  cylindrical 
spaces,  each  opening  above  in  an  osculum.  Water 
passing  through  body  mass,  ejected  again  from 
osculum.  In  many  sponges  siliceous  spicules 
(13a)  more  or  less  replace  the  horny  fibres.  In 
many  fossil  sponges  (13b)  fibres  are  all  siliceous. 
Some  sponges  tunnel  into  shells  or  rocks  to  which 
they  grow  (Boring  sponge,  Clione  sulphurea — 14). 

Ill      COELENTERATA: 

1.  Hydrozoa  (Hydroids)  mostly  marine,  gener- 
ally colonial,  attached  to  rocks  or  sea  weeds.  Body 
covered  by  delicate  horny  sheath  either  furnished 
with  numerous  bell-shaped  hydrothecae  or  cups, 
each  on  a  stem  and  enclosing  a  polyp,  (Campanu- 
laria,  15a)  or  with  a  double  row  of  close  set  hydro- 
thecae (Sertularia,  15b).  When  dried  the  sheath 


alone  remains,   a  horny  substance,   suggestive  of 
delicate  seaweeds  (15). 

Dictyonema  (17) — a  fossil  form  (Graptolite) 
represents  the  sheath  compressed  on  shale  into 
carbonaceous  film — the  several  strands  connected 
by  cross-threads  into  a  net  work.  The  cups  seldom 
visible. 

2.  Hydrocoralline:      A    group    in    which    the 
sheath  is  replaced  by  a  calcareous  structure  re- 
sembling coral.     Millepora   (16).     The  cups  open 
by  pores  on  the  surface  of  the  structure — there 
being  two  sets  of  different  sizes — the  larger  (gas- 
tropores)   lodging  the  feeding  polyps,  the  smaller 
(dactylopores)  the  fighting  polyps.   In  section  note 
that  the  tubes  (the  representative  of  the  cups)  are 
successively  divided  off  by  floors  or  tabulae.  Com- 
mon on  coral  reefs.     Fossil  representatives  of  this 
group  are  known  as  Stromatopora   (18)  in  which 
the  calcareous  material  is  deposited  in  successive 
layers.      An  important  reef  builder  of  Palaeozoic 
time.      Sometimes   formed   masses    10   ft.   in   di- 
ameter. 

3.  Actinozoa  (Corals).  The  skeletal  structure 
(corallum)  of  calcium  carbonate  or  lime  alone  re- 
mains— see    illustrations    in    Saville-Kent,    Great 
Barrier  Reef,  for  aspect  and  color  of  polyps. 

Eusmylia  (19)  a  simple  recent  coral.  Note  rad- 
iating plates  or  septa  and  wall — increase  by  divi- 
sion of  older  individuals. 

Streptelasma  (20)  a  simple  fossil  coral  show- 
ing wall  and  septa — interspaces  filled  with  mud 
hardened  into  rock. 

Madrepora  (21)  (Stag-horn  coral) .  A  recent 
compound  branching  coral  with  small  individuals 
separated  by  solid  calcareous  tissue.  Septa  rudi- 
mentary. A  common  reef  builder  of  to-day. 

10 


Astraea  (22)  (Star  coral)  compound  "head," 
consisting  of  closely  arranged  individuals,  each 
showing  septa  wall,  etc.  A  modern  reef  builder. 

Acervularia  (23)  fossil  Astraean  coral  showing 
septa  and  wall  in  each  individual.  Interspaces  all 
filled  by  lime  mud,  hardened  to  rock,  hence  polish- 
ing was  possible.  A  Palaeozoic  reef  builder — often 
of  great  size. 

Trays  A.  11-20. 

IV  MOLLUSCOIDEA 

1.  BRYOZOA: 

Minute  colonial  organisms  chiefly  marine,  en- 
crusting sea  weed  stalks,  etc.  Membranipora  (1) 
consists  of  numerous  small  calcareous  cells,  each 
one  lodging  an  animal  (zooid).  Monticulipora  (2) 
a  fossil  Bryozoan  of  the  Palaeozoic.  The  cells  are 
deep,  closely  crowded  and  divided  off  into  tiers  by 
tabulae. 

2.  BRACHIOPODA: 

Shell  of  two  valves,  dorsal  and  ventral — the 
valves  nearly  equal  as  in  Lingula  (3a)  and  at- 
tached by  long  fleshy  stem  or  pedicle;  or  more 
generally  unequal  in  size  as  in  Terebratula  (3). 
Each  valve  is  symmetrical  with  reference  to  median 
line.  Larger  valve  with  round  foramen  through 
which  fleshy  pedicle  projects  as  shown  in  recent 
Terebratula  (3b). 

Strophomena  (4)  one  valve  concave  leaving 
very  narrow  space  for  soft  parts  of  animal.  Hinge 
elongated,  with  flattened  hinge  area.  Symmetry 
as  in  Terebratula. 

V  MOLLUSCA 

1.      PELECYPODA:      (Bivalve  MoUusks) . 
Shell  of  two  valves — right  and  left.     Generally 
equal  in  size  and  form  as  in  Venus  ( 5-)  or  Cardita 

11 


(6)  or  slightly  unequal  but  with  the  valves  nearly 
symmetrical  as  in  the  scallops  or  Pecten  (7).  In- 
crease of  shell  by  addition  of  layers  around  initial 
point  or  beak.  Surface  smooth  but  marked  by 
growth  lines  (5)  or  with  radiating  plications 
(6  and  7).  Form  nearly  circular  as  in  Cardita  (6) 
or  elongate  as  in  Mytilus  (8).  Interior  of  valve 
showing  muscle  scars,  etc.  (5).  Fossil  forms  often 
very  similar  to  recent  ones  as  in  Modiola  (9). 

2.  GASTROPODA  (Snails). 

Spirally  coiled  shells  either  low  spired  as  in  the 
garden  snail  Helix  (10)  or  the  sea  snail  Nerita 
(11)  or  elongate  spired  as  in  Turritella  recent 
(13)  or  fossil  (14).  Aperture  round  with  re- 
flexed  lip  as  in  Helix  (10)  with  sharp  lip  (11) 
with  spinous  lip  as  in  Murex  (lla)  or  with  lip 
notched  at  back  and  often  drawn  out  into  a  canal 
as  in  Fusus  or  Purpura  (12).  The  shell  is  some- 
times cup-shaped,  as  in  the  Limpet,  and  this  has 
sometimes  an  apical  hole  as  in  the  keyhole  Limpet 
Fissurella  (15). 

3.  PTEROPODA  (Sea  Butterflies) . 

Shells  small,  generally  more  or  less  transparent, 
of  variable  form.  The  simplest  a  small,  slender, 
tapering  tube  (Styliola)  (16a)  living  near  the  sur- 
face of  the  ocean  as  plankton,  the  dead  shells  ac- 
cumulating as  Pteropod  ooze  on  the  ocean  floor. 
Styliolina  (16)  a  fossil  form  compressed  on  shale 
makes  up  limestone  in  the  Devonic,  estimated  to 
contain  40,000  individuals  to  the  cubic  inch.  (17). 

4.  CEPHALOPODA. 

To  this  class  belong  the  living  cuttle  fish,  Squid, 
Devil  fish,  Nautilus,  and  a  host  of  fossil  forms. 
Nautilus  (18a)  builds  a  shell  coiled  in  a  single 

12 


plane  and  divided  by  septa  which  are  pierced  by 
the  siphuncle.  Orthoceras  (18)  is  like  Nautilus 
straightened  out.  When  the  shell  is  removed,  as  is 
usually  the  case,  the  edges  of  the  septa  are  seen 
and  the  space  between  filled  with  hardened  mud. 
Note  position  of  siphuncle  (not  always  clearly 
shown).  Specimens  showing  shell  partly  preser- 
ved are  rare  (18b). 

Ammonites  (19)  are  fossil  forms  with  shells 
often  ornamented  and  with  the  edges  of  the  septa 
highly  fluted  and  complexly  folded.  They  are  all 
extinct.  Ceratites  and  Goniatites  are  early  forms. 

Spirula  (19a)  is  a  modern  coiled  shell  entirely 
within  the  animal.  It  shows  the  septa  and 
siphuncle. 

Belemnites.  A  fossil  form  with  the  shell  or 
phragmocone  (20a)  enclosed  in  a  calcareous  guard 
(20)  which  is  commonly  cigar- shaped  and  has  a 
conical  depression  for  the  reception  of  the  shell  at 
one  end. 

VI      VERMES — WORMS. 

Marine,  fresh-water  and  terrestrial  animals 
mostly  without  hard  parts  capable  of  preservation. 
One  order  builds  tubes  either  of  cemented  sand 
grains  or  of  lime.  Serpula  (21)  is  an  irregular 
tube  attached  to  shells  or  occurring  in  clusters. 
Spirula  is  a  spirally  coiled  tube  found  in  deeper 
water,  both  recent  (22)  and  fossil  (23)  attached 
to  seaweed,  shells  or  other  objects  of  support. 
Worm  tubes  in  sand  of  sea  shore  are  U-shaped, 
two  sides  separately  preserved,  as  in  Scolithus 
(23a).  Worm  castings  often  preserved  in  rocks 
resulting  from  hardening  of  old  mud  flats  (23b). 
Internal  jaws  (Conodonts)  also  preserved  (23c). 

13 


VH      ARTHROPODA 

A.  Crustacea. 

1.  Malacostraca:  The  highest  order  represent- 
ed  by  Decapoda,     (ten-footed    Crustacea)    which 
comprise  lobsters  and  crayfish   (Macrura)    (24a) 
with  elongate  cephalothoracic  shield  and  long  ring- 
ed abdomen;  5  pair  of  walking  legs  of  which  one 
is  generally  modified  into  a  grasping  claw  (chela)  ; 
with  antennae,    stalked   eyes,    mouth   parts,    etc., 
and  Crabs   (Brachyura)    (24b)   with  broad,  more 
or  less   flattened  carapace,    five   pair  of  walking 
legs,    one    clawed,    abdomen   tail-like,    commonly 
turned  under.      Fossil  Decapods  are  often  found 
represented  by  claws  only  in  Mesozoic  and  Ceno- 
zoic  strata  (24),  also  whole  carapaces. 

2.  Cirripedia:  include  the  barnacles,  degener- 
ate Crustacea  attached  to  rock,  etc.,  acorn  barnacle 
(Balanus)    (25)    or  by  fleshy  stem  to  logs,  etc.; 
goose  barnacle  (Lepas)    (26).     Both  types  found 
fossil. 

3.  Ostracoda    are    minute    bivalve    crustacea 
often  making  up  masses  of  rock,    either  marine 
(Leperditia,  etc.)    (26a)   or  fresh  water  (Cypris, 
etc.)    (26b). 

4.  The  order  Trilobita  is  the  most  important 
extinct  order,  entirely  confined  to  the  Palaeozoic 
(27)    composed  of  head,  thorax  and  pygidium — 
each  showing  central  axis  and  sides.     Eyes  often 
well  developed,  compound  legs  and  antennae  rare- 
ly preserved.      Head   often   with   separate    "free 
cheeks."     Thorax  jointed,  often  permitting  enroll 
ment. 

B.  Acerata 

5.  Merostomes  are  highly  developed  Arthro- 
pods.   Crustacea  like.    Body  sometimes  encased  in 

14 


solid  carapace  with  only  telson  movable  as  in  the 
modern  horse -shoe  crab  or  Limulus  (27a)  or  with 
the  thorax  and  abdomen  both  ringed  and  not  separ- 
able as  in  Eurypterus  (27b),  a  Palaeozoic  form. 

VIII  ECHINODERMATA.      ("Spiny      Skinned") 
Marine  organisms — one  group  represented  by  the 
star  fish,  a  common  recent  form    (28)    and  also 
found  fossil   (28a).     The  Brittle  star  (28b)  also 
found  fossil.     A  second  group  comprise  sea  urchins 
having  a  calcareous  "test"  made  of  spine-bearing 
plates;  abundant  in  modern  seas  (Strongylocentro- 
tus  drobachiensis)    (29)   and  fossil  chiefly  in  the 
Mesozoic   and  later.      The   form  is   regular  with 
central  mouth  as  in  Cidaris   (30)   and  with  large 
spines   (31);  or  irregular;  of  elongate  form  with 
mouth  at  one  end,  as  in  Maretia  (32).     The  third 
class  comprises  the  crinoids  which  are  represented 
by  recent  forms  in  tropical  seas  (33a)  and  by  fos- 
sil forms    (35).      They  consist  of  a  calyx    (35) 
bearing  arms    (33)    and  generally  attached  by  a 
stem  or  stalk  (34) .     Two  other  types  belong  here, 
both   extinct,    the   Blastoid    (Pentremites)     (36) 
with  regular  bud-like  form,  and  the  Cystoid  (37) 
composed  of  irregular  plates.     Both  were  attached 
by  stems  and  had  rudimentary  or  no  arms. 

IX  VERTERBRATA. 

These  have  internal  skeletons  generally  capable 
of  preservation,  and  often  external  limy  or  cal- 
careous armors.  Dermal  spines,  teeth,  etc.,  are 
also  cabable  of  preservation.  Include:  Fish,  Amphi- 
bians, Reptiles,  Birds  and  Mammals. 

STRATIGRAPHIC  MAPS  AND  SECTIONS. 

THE   PRE    CAMBRIC. 

Foundation  complex  of  crystalline  rarely  un- 
metamorphosed  rocks,  generally  divisible  into 

15 


Archaean  and  Algonkian  or  Huronian.     Underlies 
all  later  formations. 

Distribution:  North  America.  Canadian  shield 
and  Newfoundland,  Wisconsin — Michigan  area, 
Adirondack  area  and  Southern  Appalachians: 
original  centers  of  deposition.  New  England — 
Hudson  area;  Rocky  Mountains  area  and  small 
patches  in  Texas,  Missouri  and  the  Cordilleran 
area  mostly  brought  up  by  subsequent  folding 
or  faulting. 

Europe.  Northwest  Scotland  and  Highland  area 
in  part  and  Ireland — Fenno-Scandia,  Central  France. 
Main  centers  of  deposition  of  early  Palaeozoic 
strata.  Patches  in  Alps,  Bohemia,  etc.,  brought  up 
by  subsequent  disturbance  and  erosion. 

Origin:  Archaean  granites,  gneisses,  schists,  etc. 
metamorphic  mainly  from  ancient  volcanic  and 
other  igneous  rocks — some  ancient  sediments. 
Algonkian  or  Huronian — largely  sediments,  but 
mostly  formed  by  rivers  on  land;  fossils  are  seldom 
well  preserved.  Much  metamorphism. 
Contents :  Much  of  metallic  mineral  deposit  of 
world  in  the  Pre  Cambric.  Not  all  metamorphic 
nor  all  mineral  bearing  deposits  are  Pre  Cambric 
— some  very  recent. 

THE    CAMBRIC. 
(Laboratory  Trays  B.  1  — 10.) 
Named    by   Sedgwick   from   Cambria — ancient 
name  of  North  Wales. 

Two-fold  division  over  earths'  surface — Atlantic 
type,  Pacific  type.     In  each  a  threefold  division 
recognizable,  lower,  middle  and  upper. 
Greatest  development  in  America. 

Lower.  In  Atlantic  province  called  Etcheminian 
from  Indian  tribe.  Zone  fossil  Holmia. 

16 


Pacific — called  Georgian  from  Georgia   Vermont. 
Zone  fossil  Olenellus. 

Middle.  In  Atlantic  called  Acadian  from  East- 
ern Canada.  Zone  fossil  Paradoxides.  Pacific  (not 
named).  Zone  fossil  Olenoides. 

Upper.  Atlantic  or  Bretonian  (from  Cape 
Breton  Island)  Zone  fossils:  Olenus  (14) 
Microdiscus,  (13)  Pacific  or  Saratogan  (from 
Saratoga,  N.  Y.)  (Potsdamian)  Zone  fossils  Dikel- 
locephalus  (14b)  Lingulepis  (14c). 

Transition  zone  to  Ordovicic.     (Tremadoc  division) 
contains  Dictyonema(  15). 

Distribution  and  character:  Atlantic  province: 
Eastern  New  Foundland,  New  Brunswick  and  Cape 
Breton,  etc., — Eastern  Massachusetts,  England, 
Baltic  region,  Mediterranean  region  and  Bohemia, 
the  most  famous  section.  Barrande  placed  all  older 
fossiliferons  rocks  of  Bohemia  in  the  Silurian  Sys- 
tem and  divided  it  into  rocks  with  primordial  or 
first  fauna, — second  and  third  fauna.  The  first 
fauna  is  the  Cambric  (middle).  Pacific  province: 
Cordilleran  region  to  Rocky  Mountains,  Texas,  and 
extending  northeast  where  now  are  Appalachians — 
through  Pennsylvania,  New  Jersey,  Eastern  New 
York  and  Western  Massachusetts,  Vermont, 
Quebec  to  Western  Newfoundland  to  Arctic  Sea 
which  covered  north  Scotland,  China,  Siberia,  etc., 
also  in  India  and  Australia.  Changes  and  rear- 
rangements of  shore  lines  in  these  periods  are  pro- 
nounced. 

Material.  In  Pacific  province  basal  sands  passing 
up  into  limestones ;  shales  rarer.  In  Atlantic  muds 
and  some  limestones — the  latter  thickest  in  Medi- 
terranean region. 

17 


CHARACTERISTIC   COLUMNAR   SECTIONS 

1  PACIFIC  REGION:  Nevada:  Mostly  limestones 
L.  4500  ft.  M.  2600  ft.  U.  1000  ft.  Montana:  L. 
absent,  M.  shales  and  limestones  1200  ft.  U. 
absent  by  erosion.  Colorado:  (Rocky  Mt.  front 
range,  L.  &  M.  absent  U.  Sandstone  100  ft.  or  more. 
Progressive  overlap  from  west  to  east. 

2.  CENTRAL  NORTH  AMERICA:  Southern  Appa- 
lachians: Mostly  limestones,  L.  7000  ft.  or  more, 
M.  2000  ft.  U.  3500  ft.  Missouri:  limestones,  L. 
absent  M.  200.  ft.  U.  100  ft.  partial  reduction  of 
thickness  by  erosion.  Minnesota.  L.  &  M.  absent, 
U.  sandstone,  500  ft.  partial  reduction  of  thickness 
by  erosion.  Potsdam:  special  name  for  upper 
Cambric. 

LABORATORY  WORK  WITH  FOSSILS. 

(Trays  B.  1-10.) 

PRESERVATION. 
A.      Actual  record  of  entombment. 

I.  Original  substance  preserved.     Soft  parts  as 
insect  in  amber  ( la) .      Mammoth  in  ice.      Original 
hard  parts — shark's  tooth  (1),  bones,  shells. 

II.  Substance  altered  (a)  by  carbonization,  as 
in  Dictyonema  (15),  (b)  by  replacement  with  sil- 
ica as  in  silicifted  shells  (2)  or  silicified  wood  (3). 

III.  Original  substance  destroyed.      Impression 
or  mold  alone  remains.     Illustrated  by  artificial 
mold  of  pelecypod   (Area),  both  internal  and  ex- 
ternal (4)  and  natural  mold  of  pelecypod  (5)  arti- 
ficial internal  mold  of  Helix  (6)  ;  natural  internal 
mold  of  Turritella  ( 7 ) . 

18 


B.  Impressions   left   in   transit.      Foot   prints 
(7a),  trails  (7b)  of  organisms,  as  in  Arthrophycus 
(7c). 

C.  Artificial  structures.      Structures  built  by 
organisms   from   foreign    substances,    e.g.,    worm 
tubes  as  in  Scolithus  (10). 

D.  Coprolites  or  excrements  of  characteristic 
form,  e.g.,  those  of  Jurassic  Reptiles  (7d). 

DISTORTION  OF  FOSSILS. 

By  pressure,  during  folding  or  other  tectonic 
movements  fossils  are  often  distorted  so  as  to  lose 
their  original  form.  Flattening  from  settling  of 
sediments  is  a  common  mode  of  distortion.  (8). 

PSEUDOFOSSILS. 

Delicate  films  of  oxide  of  iron  or  manganese 
often  simulate  ferns  or  other  fossil  impressions; 
these  are  the  dendrites  (9). 

CAMBRIC  FOSSILS. 
(Trays  B.    1-10-continued.) 

Dictyonema  (15).  Note  fan-like  branching 
and  cross -threads,  cups  or  thecae  generally  not 
shown.  (See  diagram).  '  Cambro — Ordovicic 
transition  zone. 

Scolithus  (10).  Note  smooth  pencil-like  fill- 
ing of  old  tubes.  Walls  of  tubes  are  agglutinated. 
Potsdamian. 

Olenellus  (12a).  Besides  form,  note  long 
pygidial  spine;  absence  of  suture,  which  would 
cut  off  free  cheeks;  outline  of  central  part  of  head 
or  glabella.  Georgian. 

19 


Paradoxides  (12).  Note  broadening  glabella; 
separation  of  free  checks.  (Acadian). 

Microdiscus  (13).  Minute  head  and  pygidial 
shields.  No  eyes.  (Bretonian). 

Olenus  (14).  Rather  square  glabella.  (Bret- 
onian ) . 

Dikellocephalus  (14a).  Large  size;  form; 
note  spines  on  pygidium.  (Potsdamian) . 

THE  ORDOVICIC  SYSTEM 
(Laborat.-ry  Trays  B.  11-20.) 

Named  by  Lapworth  from  ancient  inhabitants 
of  Western  England.  Originally  called  by  Murchi- 
son  Lower  Silurian  and  by  Sedgwick  Upper  Cam- 
brian. Two  main  types  of  sedimentation  known: 
the  sandstone -limestone  type  around  the  Canadian 
shield  and  in  the  Baltic  and  Mediterranean  areas, 
and  the  sandy  shale  and  shale  type  with  grapto- 
lites,  found  more  especially  in  marginal  regions 
of  the  continents.  A  third  type  consists  of  river 
and  wind  laid  sediments,  formed  in  eastern 
United  States  and  some  other  regions,  and  which 
are  partly  of  a  red  color  suggesting  arid  condi- 
tions. 

Standard  Series:  Fossils: 

Upper  or  Trentonian. 

Richmond  formation .  .Rhynchotrema  (14) 

Lorraine     Platystrophia  (13) 

Eden — (Frankfort)    .  . 

Utica    Diplograptus    (10) 

Triarthrus         (11) 

Trenton,  Prasopora  (5)  Dalmanella  (15) 
Plectambonites  (16).  Orthoceras 
(6)  Asaphus  (7).  Trinucleus 
(8). 

20 


Middle  or  Chazyan. 

Black  River    Columnaria  (  4 ) 

Lowville Phytopsis  (  3 ) 

Chazy    Maclurea  (  2) 

Lower  or  Beekmantownian. 
Beekmantown     forma- 
tion     Ophileta  (    1 ) 


CHARACTERISTIC  NATURAL  SECTIONS. 

1.  Lake  Champlain  section.  Strata  dip  gently 
east;  rest  on  crystallines  of  Adirondacks.  Potsdam 
s.  s.  1150  ft.  followed  by  Beekmantown,  1800  ft.; 
Chazy,   partly  concealed  under  lake  but  forming 
islands — 900  ft.;  Black  River  80  ft.;  Trenton  300 
ft.;  Utica  600  ft.;  cut  off  by  thrust  fault  on  east 
bringing  up  Cambric. 

2.  Mohawk  Valley  section.      Strata  dip  gently 
south.      Adirondack  crystallines;  followed  directly 
by  lower   Beekmantown    350    ft.   forming   cliffs; 
hiatus;  Lowville  (Upper  Chazy)  30  ft. ;  Black  River 
10  ft.;  Trenton  limestone  (at  Trenton  Falls)   250 
ft. ;  Utica  shale  at  Utica  on  Mohawk  600  ft. ;  Frank- 
fort shale   100  ft.;   hiatus;   Oneida  conglomerate 
forming  cliffs  40  ft.;  (Siluric). 

3.  Western  New  York  section.      Dipping  gent- 
ly  south.      Crystallines    of   Canada.    Black  River 
limestone    2U  ft.      Trenton  limestone  900  ft.  Utica 
— Lorraine  600  ft.  mostly  under  Lake  Ontario — 
Oswego  sandstone  75  ft.    (deepest  part  of  lake). 
Queenston  red  shale  and  sandstone    (Richmond) 
1100  ft.   (only  100  ft.  above  south  shore  of  Lake 
Ontario).     Medina  sandstone  (Siluric). 

21 


4.  Upper  Mississippi  Valley  section.  Dip  gent- 
ly southeast.     Crystallines;  St.  Croix    (Potsdam) 
sandstone    with    Dikellocephalus     600    ft.     Mag- 
nesian  limestone  (Beekmantown)  200ft.  St.  Peter 
sandstone  150  ft.    Stones  River  (Upper  Chazy)  40 
ft.     Black  River  50  ft.     Galena  limestone  with  Re  - 
ceptaculites   200   ft.   forming   cliffs;   hiatus;    Ma- 
quoketa  (Upper  Richmond)    50  ft.;  Niagara  (Sil- 
uric). 

5.  Rocky  Mountains  section.      Dipping  about 
30     degrees     east.       Granite;     Basal     sandstone 
(Potsdam)    30  ft. — Beekmantown  limestone  200 
ft.;   hiatus;   Lower   Trenton   limestones    300   ft.; 
hiatus;  Upper  Richmond  limestone  100  ft.;  hiatus; 
Mississippic  limestones. 

6.  Appalachian  sections.  Beds  dipping  at  angles 
of  45  degrees  to  90  degrees — sandstones  common- 
ly form  sharp  ridges.     Shales  and  limestones  form 
valleys. 

6a.  Central  Pennsylvania.  An  anticline; 
beds  on  western  limb  vertical,  on  eastern  dipping 
45  degrees  E.  In  center  Upper  Kittatinny  lime- 
stone (Upper  Cambric)  ;  Beekmantown  limestone 
2500  ft.;  Chazy  limestone  2500  ft.;  Black  River 
100  ft.;  Trenton  limestone  600  ft.;  Utica  shale 
650  ft.;  Frankfort  and  Lorraine  350  ft.;  Bald 
Eagle  Conglomerate  (Lorraine  or  Early  Richmond) 
forming  Bald  Eagle  Mountain  on  west  and  Nittany 
Mountain  on  east  350  ft.  Juniata,  red  sandstone 
(Richmond)  500  ft.  Tuscarora  sandstone — Me- 
dina— Siluric  (forming  ridge)  500  ft. — Nittany 
Mountain  Is  a  syncline,  with  highest  beds  in  center 
Juniata  red  beds. 


6b.  Eastern  Tennessee.  Beds  form  monocline 
dipping  about  45  degrees  to  the  S.  E.  crest  of 
Clinch  Mountain  is  formed  by  sandstone  of  that 
name.  Knox  dolomyte  (Upper  Cambric)  3500  ft. 
— forms  broad  valley.  Chickamauga  limestone — 
1700  ft.  (Chazy) ;  Sevier  shale  600  ft.  (Trenton) ; 
Bays  Red  sandstone  325  ft.  (Richmond) ;  Clinch 
sandstone  200  ft.  (Medina),  Rockwood  formation 
650  ft.  (Niagara);  hiatus;  Hancock  limestone 
275  ft.  (Helderberg)  ;  hiatus  Black  shale — 
Devonic  to  Missippic — valley  formation. 

LABORATORY  WORK  WITH  ORDOVICIC  FOSSILS 
(Trays  B.  11-20.) 

1.  Ophileta — Beekmantown.    Note    numerous 
whorls,  coiled  nearly  in  a  plane;  gradual  enlarge- 
ment of  coil,  flat  under  and  keeled  upper  side. 

2.  Maclurea — Chazy.     Flat  spire  showing  all 
coils — left-handed  coiling,  rapid  enlargement,  tri- 
angular section  of  whorl. 

3.  Phytopsis — Lowville.  A  series  of  tube-like 
or  rod-like  structures  embedded  in  fine  lime  mud 
— as  grass  stems  might  be  buried  in  mud  accumu- 
lating around  them.     Section  shown  in  all  direc- 
tions. 

4.  Columnaria — Black  River.      Compound,   of 
slender  prismatic  tubes  striated  exteriorly,  divided 
by  crossplates  or  tabulae  interiorly. 

5.  Prasopora — Trenton.      Note  form;  wrinkl- 
ed epitheca  of  flat  base,  finely  prismatic  tubes  seen 
in  section. 

23 


6.  Orthoceras — Trenton.      Slender     subcylin- 
drical  form  gradually    tapering,    divided    by  con- 
cave septa.      On  surface  of  septum,  note  connect- 
ing tube  or  siphuncle. 

7.  Asaphus — Trenton.      Similarity     of     head 
and  pygidium,  the  former  distinguished  by  large 
eyes;  body  (thorax)  of  a  number  of  rings. 

8.  Trinucleus — Trenton.      Head     with     three 
rounded  lobes,  the  middle  one  largest.  Outer  rim 
ornate,  with  rows  of  pits.      Lateral  spines  long — 
seldom  preserved. 

9.  Receptaculites — Galena.      Form        watch- 
glass-shaped;  like  the  bottom  of  a  beaker-like  or 
jar-like   structure;   walls   composed  of  rods  with 
crossbars  at  both  ends,  of  saw-horse  type.     Ar- 
rangement such  as  to  give  external  pattern  re- 
sembling markings  on  machine-turned  watch  case. 

10.  Diplograptus — Utica.      Slender,          shiny 
black  mark  on  surface    of    shale.      Note    toothed 
margins,  formed  by  compressed  cups  or  thecae. 

11.  Triarthrus — Utica.     Head     with     square 
glabella,  marked    by    backward    converging  fur- 
rows.    Body  (thorax)  of  many  rings. 

12.  Rafinesquina — Cincinnati      group.      Con- 
cavo-convex, two  valves  almost  in  conjunction  with 
little  space  between.      Straight  hinge-line,  narrow 
hinge  area,    surface    with    alternating    radiating 
striae. 

13.  Platystrophia — Cincinnati  group.  Coarse- 
ly plicate,  long  straight  hinge  line  and  areas  on 
both  valves.     Median  depression    (sinus)   on  one, 
elevation  (fold)  on  other  valve,  both  plicate. 

24 


14.  Rhynchotrema — Cincinnati   group.      Like 
preceding  but  without  straight  hinge  line  and  area. 

15.  Dalmanella — Cincinnati  group.  Hinge  line 
short,     area    comparatively    small,     form    nearly 
round.     One  valve  convex  the  other  flat  or  with 
median  depression. 

16.  Plectambonites — Cincinnati  group.      Like 
No.   12  but  smaller  and  proportionally  wider  and 
more  convex. 

17.  Monticulipora — Cincinnati  group.     Of  fine 
prismatic  tubes,  like  No.  5,  but  different  in  form; 
surface  aperture  of  tubes  polygonal. 

18.  Calymmene — Cincinnati  group.  Head  with 
strongly  divided  median  part  (glabella),  eyes  and 
outline  also  distinctive. 

THE  SILURIC  SYSTEM. 

Named  by  Murchison  from  old  English  tribe 
of  Silures.  Restricted  in  America  chiefly  to  cen- 
tral United  States  and  northward.  Mainly  lime- 
stones and  calcareous  shales,  with  marine  fossils 
in  lower  and  upper  part,  and  shales,  red  sand- 
stones, conglomerates,  salt  and  gypsum  beds  in  the 
middle. 

Standard  Series. 
Subdivision Fossils. 

Upper  or  Monroan. 

^>o  Manlius  limestone Tentaculites. 

Rondout  water-lime 

Cobleskill  limestone Halysites. 

i^or-Bertie    water-lime Eurypterus. 

Lower  Monroe  beds 

25 


Middle  or  Salman. 

Salina  shales,  gypsum  and  salt. 

Lower  or  Niagaran. 

Guelph  dolomyte 

Lockport    Limestone Halysites. 

Rochester  shale Caryocrinus. 

Clinton  Limestone  and  shale  Pentamerus. 
Medina  sandstone Arthrophycus. 

CHARACTERISTIC  SECTIONS. 

1.  Niagara  Section:      From  Lake  Ontario  to 
Buffalo.      Continuation  of  Ordovicic  section,   No. 
3.     Beds  nearly  horizontal.     Most  of  series  ex- 
posed in  Niagara  escarpment    (200  ft.  high)   at 
Lewiston.       Queenston     red     shales     (Ordovicic) 
mostly  under  Lake  Ontario, — about  60  ft.  shown. 
Medina  sandstone  125  ft.;  Clinton  group  40  ft.; 
Rochester  shale  75  ft.  (forms  Cave  of  Winds  with 
Clinton  limestone  as  floor).     Lockport  and  Guelph 
dolomite  200  ft.  (the  Falls  over  lower  80  ft. ;  rapids 
50  ft.  higher).     Salina  shales  and  gypsum  350  ft. 
Bertie  water-lime  60  ft.      Cobleskill  7  ft.;  hiatus; 
disconf ormity ;  Onondaga   (Devonic). 

2.  Rosendale  Section:     Beds  inclined  30  de- 
grees west.    Rest  unconformably  upon  folded  Hud- 
son River  shale.     Shawangunk  conglomerate  200 
ft.  Longwood  shale,  etc.,  40  ft.  Rosendale  water- 
lime  20  ft.     Cobleskill  limestone  15  ft.     Rondout 
water-lime  20  ft.    Manlius  limestone  50  ft.  Coey- 
mans  (Devonic) . 

3.  Appalachian    Sections:      Clinch    Mountain. 
Dip  45°  to  S.E.  upper  part  of  Ordovicic  section 
No.  6b.     Western  part  of  mountain  formed  by  out- 
crops   of    Ordovicic    strata    to    Bays    sandstone. 

M 


Clinch  sandstone  200  ft.  (Medina)  forms  crest  of 
mountain.  Rockwood  sandstones,  shales  and  iron 
ores  650  ft.  (Niagaran).  Hiatus  cutting  out  Mid- 
dle and  Upper  Siluric;  Hancock  limestone  (Dev- 
onic)  or  Black  shale  follows. 

4.  Central  New  York  Section:  Continuation 
of  Ordovicic  section  No.  2.  Dip  gently  south. 
Resting  disconformably  on  Frankfort  shale  (Ordo- 
vicic). Oneida  conglomerate  40  ft.  (cliff  former), 
Clinton -Niagara  shale  and  sandstones  250  ft. 
Salina  shales  and  gypsum  1000  ft.  Bertie  water 
lime  50  ft.;  Cobleskill  10  ft.;  Rondout  water  lime 
20  ft.;  Manlius  limestone  50  ft.;  Coeymans  5  ft. 
(Lower  Devonic). 

LABORATORY  WORK  WITH  SILURIC  FOSSILS. 
(Trays  C.  1-10.) 

1.  Lingula,  Medina.     Note  pointed  form;  shell 
symmetrical;  horny  character. 

la.  Arthrophycus,  Medina.  Crossing  of  ridges. 
Note  peculiar  ornamentation  of  same.  Occurs  as 
molds  on  underside  of  rock  corresponding  to  im- 
pression in  mud  beneath. 

2.  Anaplotheca,  Clinton.   Limestone  mass  com- 
pears  as  coaly  streak  on  shale.   Note  arrangement 

3.  Pentamerus,  Clinton.     Large  smooth  sym- 
metrical shells.    Valves  nearly  equal,  often  only  one 
shown. 

4.  Monograptus,    Clinton.      Compressed,    ap- 
pears as  coaly  streak  on  shale.     Note  arrangment 
and  form  of  serrations  (compressed  hydrothecae). 

5.  Clinton  iron  ore.     Note  color,  softness,  etc. 

27 


6.  Fucoid,    Clinton.      Impression   on   shale   or 
sandstone.     Note  branching  and  general  outline. 

7.  Rochester  shale,   typical   calcareous   shale 
with  Bryozoa. 

8.  Caryocrinus,     Rochester.      Nut-like     form. 
Note  point  where  stem  was  attached;  also  bases  of 
arms.      Trace  outlines  of  plates  of  calyx,  and  orna- 
mentation on  same. 

9.  Calymmene,  Niagaran  limestones  and  dolo- 
mites.     Often   fragmentary.      Head   with   median 
lobe  or  glabella  strongly  and  peculiarly  notched, 
this  being  character  by  which  genus  is  recognized. 
Note  form  of  cheeks,  eyes,  character  of  body  lobes 
and  form  of  pygidium,  if  present. 

10.  Halysites,     Chain    coral,     Lockport,     also 
Cobleskill.     Compressed  tubes  oval  in  section  unite 
by  narrow  sides,  form  irregular  links. 

11.  Orthoceras  annulare.    Lockport,  etc.  Com- 
pare  with  Ordovicic   Orthoceras.      Note   elevated 
rings  with  fine  wrinkled  lines  between.     Edges  of 
concave  septa  do  not  correspond  to  rings. 

12.  Shawangunk   Conglomerate.   Quartz   peb- 
bles rounded.     Note  general  absence  of  other  min- 
erals than  quartz.     In     character  often  like  Bald 
Eagle  or  Tuscarora-Clinch,  or  Oneida. 

13.  Longwood  shale.     Typical  red  shale,  in  all 
essentials  like  Juniata,  Bays  or  Queenston  shale. 
Indications;  scmiarid  climate  during  formation. 

13a.  Eurypterus,  Bertie.  Note  head  with  eyes; 
body  of  numerous  rings;  tail-spine;  appendages  or 
paddle  legs  and  walking  legs. 

2S 


14.  Tentaculites,  Manlius,  or  Tentaculite  lime- 
stone.    Slender,  tapering  tubes  strongly  ringed. 

15.  Leperditia,  Manlius.     Bean-like,  two  val- 
ves with  straight  hinge-line,  eye  tubercle. 

THE  DEVONIC  SYSTEM. 
(Laboratory  trays  C.  11-20;  D.  1-10  in  part). 

Name  from  Devonshire  in  Southwestern  Eng- 
land, where  marine  formations  of  this  age  were 
first  studied  by  Murchison  and  Sedgwick.  Equiva- 
lent to  Old  Red  System  of  Scotland. 

Types  of  Sedimentation.  (1)  The  open  mar- 
ine type  consists  of  sandy  beds  and  shales  with 
pelecypods  in  Eastern  North  America,  becoming 
calcareous  shales  with  brachiopods  further  west, 
and  coral  reef  limestone  in  Central  and  Western 
United  States. 

(2)  Black  shale  type    (Ohio  type),  probably 
in  large  part  a  delta  deposit,  like  that  of  the  Mis- 
sissippi.    Contains  much  fossil  wood,  but  few  ani- 
mals.    Also  large  spherical  concretions. 

(3)  Continental   type, — both   gray   and   red. 
Characteristic  of  eastern  United  States  and  Can- 
ada.    Oneonta  and  Catskill  red  sandstones,  Gaspe 
sandstones,  with  plants,  fresh  water  mussels  and 
peculiar  fish.     Old  Red  sandstone  of  Scotland  of 
this  type — sometimes  red  sandstone  or  coarse  con- 
glomerate or  fine  grained  flag  stone  (Caithness). 

Distribution.  Lower  Devonic  beds  are  found 
chiefly  in  eastern  and  southern  United  States,  and 
in  Rhine  Valley  region  of  Europe.  Middle  Devonic 
widespread  in  North  America,  often  coral  reefs. 
An  eastern  and  a  western  type.  Upper  Devonic, 

29 


American  or  Ithaca  type,  foreign  or  Naples  type, 
the  latter  most  widely  distributed. 

Standard  Series. 
Subdivisions  Fossils 

Upper  Devonic. 

Chemung   (or  Catskill) — Spirifer  disjunc- 
tus,  (fish,  plants.) 

Portage  beds. 

Naples  phase — Goniatites,  Spirifer  gla- 

bra. 

Ithaca  phase — Brachiopods. 
Oneonta  phase — Plants,  Unios. 

Genesee  shales — Plants,  Styliolina. 
Tully  limestone — Rhynchonella,    (Hypoth- 
yris)  cuboides. 

Middle  Devonic: 

Hamilton  group — Spirifer  mucronatus, 

corals,  etc. 
Marcellus  black  shales — Pelecypods, 

Styliolina. 
Onodaga  limestone — Corals    (Favosites 

Zaphrentis  etc.). 
Schoharie  and  Esopus  grits. 

Lower  Devonic: 

Oriskany     sandstone — Spirifer     arenosus 
Rensselaeria. 

Helderbergian  beds — 

Port  Ewen — Leptaena. 

Becraft — Gypidula  pseudogaleata. 

New  Scotland — Spirifer  macro — 

pleura. 
Coeymans — Gypidula  galeata. 

30 


CHARACTERISTIC  SECTIONS. 

1.  Helderberg  Section.     (Continuation  of  Silu- 
ric  section,  No.  2.)     Beds  gradually  becoming  hori- 
zontal, at  first  inclined  30°  west.     Coeymans  lime- 
stone   50   ft.;   New   Scotland  shaly  beds   75   ft.; 
Becraft  limestone  30  ft.;  Port  Ewen  shaly  beds 
150  ft.;  Oriskany  sandstone,  etc.  60  ft.;  Esopus- 
Schoharie  shales  350  ft.;  Onondaga  75  ft.  (forms 
cliffs);  Marcellus -Hamilton  shales  600  ft.;  Upper 
Hamilton  sandstones  500  ft.  (Lower  flag-stones)  ; 
Oneonta  sandstones  (Upper  flag-stones)  3000ft.; 
Catskill  red  sandstone  and  conglomerate  1700  ft. 

2.  Central  New  York  Section.      Continuation 
of  Siluric  section  No.   4,  from  south  of  Utica  in 
zigzag  line  to  Elmira,  passing  through  Clinton  (site 
of  Hamilton  College) ;  Oriskany  battlefield;  Hamil- 
ton   (site   of   Colgate   University);   Tully;   Ithaca 

(Cornell    University)     to    Chemung    River,    near 
Elmira    (State  Reformatory). 

Resting  conformably  on  Manlius :  Coeymans  5 
ft.;  erosion  surface,  hiatus;  Oriskany  sandstone  20 
ft. ;  hiatus.  Onondaga  limestone  100  ft. ;  Marcellus 
shale  180  ft. ;  Hamilton  shales  1200  ft. ;  Tully  lime- 
stone 50  ft. ;  Genesee  shale  100  ft. ;  Lower  Portage 
sandstone  (Naples  fauna)  250  ft.;  Ithaca  shales 
450  ft.;  Upper  Portage  (Naples)  shales  and  sand- 
stones 600  ft.;  Chemung  sandstones  and  shales 
1200  ft.;  Catskill  shales  1250  ft.;  Olean  (Car- 
bonic) conglomerate  at  State  line. 

3.  Western  New  York  Section.      Continuation 
of  Siluric  section  1  from  Buffalo  along  Lake  Erie  to 
Dunkirk,  then  south  to  Pennsylvania  line  at  Olean 
and     Bradford.       Beds     nearly     horizontal.       At 
Buffalo     resting     disconformably     on     Cobleskill 
(eroded):    Oriskany-streak;   Onondaga  limestone 

31 


200  ft.;  Marcellus  shales  200  ft.;  Hamilton  shales 
200  ft. ;  Tully  and  Genesee  very  thin,  Portage  shales 
and  sandstones  1300  ft.;  Chemung  shales  and 
sandstones  1500  ft.;  Cattaraugus  shales  and  con- 
glomerates, (transition  beds)  3  00  It.  hiatus  ;0swayo 
shales  (Pocono)  250  ft.  hiatus;  Shenango  shales 
(Mauch  Chunk)  80  ft.;  hiatus;  Clean  con- 
glomerate (Carbonic). 

4.  Ideal  Section  of  Middle  Devonic.     Hamilton 
formation    from    the   Hudson    to    Lake    Michigan. 
Beds  originally  horizontal.      Sandstone  and  con- 
glomerates   of   terrestrial    origin    with    plant    re- 
mains in  east.     Merge  westward  into  marine  sand- 
stones with  mollusks,  in  western  New  York  be- 
come   calcareous    shales    with    brachiopods    and 
thin  limestone  beds  and  gradually  limestone  be- 
comes more  prominent  until  on  Lake  Michigan  all 
is  limestone. 

5.  Ideal  Section  of  Upper  Devonic,    (Portage 
formation,)    in  New  York,   showing  faunas.      On 
the  east  Continental  Oneonta,   plants  and  Unios, 
then  shales  with  Ithaca  fauna  then  shales  and  sand- 
stones with  Naples  fauna  west  of  Central  New 
York.     In  Central  New  York  inter- fingering  of  two 
types.     Followed  by  invasion  of  Chemung  fauna 
from  west  and  Catskill  Continental  sedimentation 
from  east,   the   latter  gradually   overlapping  the 
former. 

LABORATORY  WORK  WITH  DEVONIC  FOSSILS. 
(Trays  C.  11-20;  D.  1-10  in  part). 

1.   Oypidula  galeata,  Coeymans.  Shell  with  sym- 
metrical valves,  larger  one  strongly  over -arching, 

32 


plicate;  smaller  one  (often  not  visible  or  absent), 
much  flatter. 

2.  Spirifer  macropleura,  New  Scotland.    Large 
with  few  coarse  plications.     Also  fine  striations 
when  shell  is  preserved. 

3.  Gypidula    pseudogaleata.      Becraft.      Like 
(1)  but  smooth. 

4.  Leptaena     rhomboidalis.        Helderbergian, 
etc.       Straight    hinge -line,    concentric    wrinkles, 
abrupt  bending  down  in  front. 

5.  Spirifer  arenosus,    Oriskany.      Large   with 
regular  plications  which  cover  median  depression 
(sinus)  and  elevation  (fold). 

6.  Rensselaeria,  Oriskany.  Symmetrical  valves 
nearly    equal,    elongate,    with    numerous    regular 
striations. 

7.  Favosites,    Onondaga — prismatic   columns, 
showing  mural  pores. 

8.  Favosites.      Same    as    No.    7,    with   tubes 
broken   lengthwise   showing   horizontal   plates   or 
tabulae. 

9.  Favosites,  Hamilton.     Small,  entire  heads 
showing  surface  opening  of  tubes. 

10.  Acervularia,  Western  Hamilton.  Compound 
with  prismatic  tubes,  center  of  each  strongly  de- 
pressed; well  marked  septa. 

11.  Diplophyllum,  Western  Hamilton.  Cylindri- 
cal tubes  well  developed;  septa  and  tabulae  well 
marked. 

12.  Pleurodictyum,  Hamilton,  Small  heads  of 
large  and  small  tubes. 

33 


13.  Zaphrentis,     Onondaga.        Conical     with 
somewhat   bi-laterally  arranged   septa   and   deep 
septal  groove  or  fossula. 

14.  Streptelasma,     Hamilton,     With     radially 
arranged  septa — otherwise  much  like  preceding. 

15.  Heliophyllum,    Hamilton,    Large,    coarsely 
wrinkled,  numerous  septa  with  cross-bars  or  car- 
inae. 

16.  Cystiphyllum,    Hamilton,    Like    preceding 
but  without  septa.     A  cystose  structure  in  their 
place. 

17.  Spirifer    mucronatus,    Hamilton.      Trans- 
versely elongated,  plicated  on  either  side  of  fold 
and  sinus;  narrow  hinge  area. 

18.  Stropheodonta,  Hamilton.    Concavo — con- 
vex shell,   surface  striated;   hinge  line  with  fine 
vertical  teeth. 

19.  Atrypa,  Hamilton.  Robust,  one  valve,  much 
deeper.     Surface  striate;  no  area. 

20.  A thyris;  Hamilton.     Smooth,  nearly  circu- 
lar, valves  nearly  equal,  very  convex. 

(Trays  D.  1-10  in  part). 

1.  Spirifer    laevis.      Portage;    large,    smooth 
with  shallow  median  depression. 

2.  Ooniatites,    Portage.       Generally    strongly 
compressed.     Coiled  in  plane,  with  angular  septal 
margins. 

3.  Spirifer   disjunctus,    Chemung.      Elongate, 
with   many   plications,    extending    over    fold    and 
sinus;  internal  mold  deeply  cleft  or  disjointed. 

34 


4.  Black  shale.      Representative  of  Marcellus, 
Genesee  and  Portage,  black  shales. 

5.  Red  sandstone.  Representative  of  Catskill 
and  Old  Red  of  Europe. 


MISSISSIPPIC,  CARBONIC  AND  PERMIC 
SYSTEMS. 

(Trays  D.  1-10  in  part). 

These  comprise  the  old  Carboniferous  system,  so 
named  from  the  presence  of  coal  for  which  it  is  the 
lowest  horizon.  Chief  coal  deposits  found  in  the 
Carbonic  (also  called  Pennsylvanic) .  Mississippic, 
named  from  Mississippi  Valley  where  it  is  well  de- 
veloped, Permic  named  from  district  of  Perm  in 
Russia. 

Standard  Series. 
Permic    (German  divisions). 
Zechstein. 
Rothliegende. 

(Eastern  American). 

Dunkard  or  Upper  Barren. 

Carbonic:    (Eastern  North  America). 

Monongahela — or  upper  productive. 

Conemaugh — or  lower  barren. 

Alleghany — or  lower  productive. 

Kanawha. 

Pottsville( Millstone  grit). 

Mississippic:    (Miss.  Valley). 
Chester, 
St.  Louis, 

35 


Waverlyan. 

Warsaw, 
Keokuk, 
Burlington, 
Kinderhook. 

In  the  Permic  of  North  Europe  great  salt  de- 
posits (Stassfurt  region)  ;  in  Southern  hemisphere 
evidence  of  glaciation  abounds  (S.  Africa,  India, 
Australia,  South  America). 

Dwyka  conglomerate  of  South  Africa,  typical  ex- 
ample of  ancient  boulder  clay  (tillite). 

In  North  America  as  well  as  Europe  the  Missis- 
sippic  deposits  are  mostly  marine  except  in  Appala- 
chian region,  where  they  are  continental.  Car- 
bonic deposits  of  Continental  origin  in  part,  contain 
coal  beds,  the  lowest  productive  beds  being  in  the 
Pottsville,  e.g.  Pocahontas  coal,  Quinnimont  coal, 
etc.  Other  important  coals  in  Kanawha  of  W.  Vir- 
ginia. The  Alleghany  contains  the  Clarion,  Kittan- 
ning  and  Freeport  coals.  The  Monongahela,  the 
Pittsburg  coal  at  the  base  and  the  Waynesburg  at 
the  top.  Conemaugh  and  Dunkard  contain  only 
thin,  mostly  unimportant  coals. 

Characteristic  Sections. 

1.  Appalachian  section.  Schuylkill  River.  A 
series  of  folds.  Section  begins  in  Blue  Ridge  with 
Shawangunk  conglomerate  resting  unconformably 
against  Hudson  River  shales.  Shawangunk  conglo- 
merate 30  ft. ;  Longwood  red  shale  1700  ft. ;  Lewis- 
ton  limestone  (Monroe)  30  ft.  (top  of  Siluric)  ; 
hiatus;  Oriskany  sandstone  30  ft. ;  hiatus  Hamilton 
and  Portage  2000  ft.  Catskill  red  sandstone  5000 
ft.;  Pocono  sandstone  and  conglomerate  1500  ft.; 
Mauch  Chunk  red  shale  2000  ft.;  Pottsville  con- 
glomerate 1250  ft.;  Kanawha  formation  1300  ft.; 
Alleghany  3  00 -f- ft. 


Anticlines  have  vertical  western  limb,  eastern 
limb  about  45  degrees.  First  syncline  halfway  be- 
tween  Blue  Ridge  and  Pottsville ;  Catskill  in  center ; 
followed  by  anticline  exposing  top  of  Longwood; 
syncline  at  Pottsville  carrying  Kanawha  and  Alle- 
ghany;  broad  anticline  exposing  Portage  in  center; 
Small  syncline  with  Catskill;  east  branch  of  Sus- 
quehanna.  Beyond  river  axis  of  anticline  exposing 
Longwood;  syncline  with  Catskill,  anticline  in  Por- 
tage, then  beds  follow  to  Pottsville  in  gradually 
dying  out  folds. 

Shawangunk,  Portage,  Pocono  and  Pottsville 
form  mountains. 

2.  Ohio-Western  Pennsylvania  Section.     Beds 
nearly  horizontal.     Rest  on  Ohio  Black  shale.  (De- 
vonic),  Waverly  group,  consisting  of  Bedford  shale 
85  feet;  Berea  grit  40  ft;  Sunbury  shale  15  ft.; 
Cuyahoga  formation  300  ft.;  Black  Hand  40  ft. 
Logan  sandstone  115  ft.  (Kinderhook  to  Koekuk— 
Pocono)  ;  hiatus;  Maxville  limestone  (Chester)  25 
ft.;  hiatus;  Sharon  conglomerate  100  ft.    (Upper 
Pottsville)  ;  Mercer  group  (with  Connoquenessing 
sandstone  at  base  and  Homewood  at  top  age  Kan- 
awha) 200  ft. ;  Alleghany  formation  350  ft. ;  Cone- 
maugh  600  ft.;   Monongahela   375   ft.;   Dunkard 
or  Washington  1200  ft. 

3.  Mississippi   Valley   Section:      Beds   nearly 
horizontal,    resting    unconformably    on    Devonic: 
Kinderhook  shales  and  limestones  140  ft.  Burling- 
ton 100  ft.;  Warsaw  40  ft.;  hiatus;  St.  Louis  200 
ft. ;  Chester  200  ft. ;  hiatus  (cutting  out  Lower  Car- 
bonic  Arkansan),    followed  by   shales   and   lime- 
stones of  Middle  Carbonic  or  Des  Moinian,  which 
comprises  in  Kansas:     Cherokee  450  ft.  and  Mar- 

37 


maton  385  ft.;  then  Upper  Carbonic  or  Missourian 
comprising  Pottawatomie  735  ft. ;  Douglas  190  ft. ; 
Shawnee  507  ft.  Succeeding  this  are  Permic 
shales  and  limestones  comprising  Wabaunsee  300 
ft.;  Cottonwood  125  ft.;  Chase  255  ft.;  Sumner 
350  ft.;  and  the  red  Cimarron  sandstones  shales 
and  gypsum  1400  ft..  Disconformity ;  Cretacic  beds. 

LABORATORY  WORK  WITH  MISSISSIPPI^  CAR- 
BONIC AND  PERMIC  FOSSILS. 
(Trays  D.  1-10  in  part). 

6.  Dizygocrinus.       Burlington;     sub-spherical 
form  of  regularly  arranged  series  of  smooth  plates 
in  lower  part  with  scar  of  stem  attachment,  and  ir- 
regular plates  in  upper  part   (tegmen)   prolonged 
into  central  anal  tube.     Arm  openings  around  mid- 
dle. 

7.  Macrocrinus,     Burlington.       Calyx     pear- 
shaped,  top  (tegem)  sloping,  arm  bases  about  14, 
anal  tube  (often  broken  away)  long. 

7a.  Lithostrotion,  St.  Louis.  Compound;  tubes 
prismatic,  septa  well  developed  meet  in  center  in 
pronounced  columella. 

7b.  Melonites,  St.  Louis.  Melon-shaped.  Am- 
bulacral  and  interambulacral  areas  each  of  numer- 
ous rows  of  small  plates,  the  former  with  pores. 

8.  Pentremites.   Chester.   Bud-like  form;  note 
five  petaloid  ambulacral  areas  and  five  openings 
on  top — the  largest  opening  includes  anus.    Mouth 
in  centre. 

9.  Crinoid  stem.      Ordovicic  to  recent ;  Missis- 
sippic.     Composed  of  discs  or  joints  more  or  less 
flexible.    Surface  of  disks  radially  striate.    Median 
canal.     Form  and  ornamentation  varies  greatly. 

M 


10.  Fusulina.      Carbonic  limestone   (marine). 
Elongate  spindle -like  form.     In  section  note  spiral 
coiling  and  successive  chambers. 

11.  Productus.    Carbonic  limestone  (marine), 
symmetrical  when  not  compressed.     Large  valve 
strongly  curved  with  incurved  beak.     Hinge  line 
straight    often    spiny — surface    with    interrupted 
ridges  and  spine. 

12a.  Pecopteris,  Carbonic  concretion.  Mid- 
rib with  numerous  closely  set  pinnules,  joining  it 
with  straight  base  at  nearly  right  angles. 

12b.  Neuropteris,  Carbonic  concretion;  single 
large  pinnule  with  indented  base.  Note  forked 
veining. 

12c.  Calamites,  Carbonic,  stony  cast — rarely 
with  bark  preserved.  Note  jointing  and  vertical 
striations. 

12d.  Sigillaria.  Carbonic.  Often  with  bark 
preserved  but  flattened.  Vertical  ridges  with  leaf 
scars  between. 

12e.  Lepidodendron,  Carbonic.  Same  as  pre- 
ceding, but  leaf  scars  in  diamond-shaped  areas. 

12f.  Stigmaria.  Carbonic.  Root  stock  of  pre- 
ceding found  in  under- clay  or  sand,  rootlets  at- 
tached at  circular  scars.. 

12g.  Cordaites,  Carbonic.  Strap-shaped  leaf 
with  parallel  veining. 

13.  Mauch  Chunk  Red  Shale.  Mississippic. 
Similar  to  older  red  shales. 

39 


14.  Pottsville       conglomerate.  (Millstone 
Grit),  with  rounded  quartz  pebbles  like  Sha wan- 
gunk,  etc.     Pocono  often  more  sandy. 

15.  Coal     shale      (Roof     shale).       Carbonic. 
Showing  plant  impressions. 

16.  Carbonic    sandstone,    prevailing    rock    of 
Coal  Measures. 

GENERAL  PALAEOZOIC  SECTIONS. 

1.  Central  Wisconsin,  S.E.  to  Central  Michi- 
gan.    Strata  dip  gently  S.E.     On  Precambric  of 
Wisconsin:  St.  Croix  (Potsdam)  sandstone  600  ft.; 
Lower  Magnesian  limestone  (Beekmantown)   200 
ft.;    St.   Peter   sandstone    150   ft.;    Stones   River, 
Black  River,  and  Galena,  300  ft.;  hiatus;  Maquo- 
keta  50  ft.;  Niagarian  limestone  with  iron  ore  at 
base   800  ft.;  hiatus;  Monroe  dolomytes    (Upper 
Siluric)   500  ft.;  hiatus;  Salina  with  salt  and  gyp- 
sum 1000  ft.;  hiatus;  Onondaga  150  ft.;  Traverse 
group    (Hamilton)    600    ft.;   Antrim   Black    shale 
200  ft.;   hiatus;   Waverly  group    1000   ft.      Coal 
Measures  700  ft. 

Green  Bay  excavated  in  Maquoketa  shale,  cliff 
on  southeast,  of  Niagarian  limestone  which  dips  un- 
der Lake  Michigan.  Islands  in  lake,  partly  Monroe, 
partly  Onondaga.  East  shore  of  Lake  Michigan, 
formed  by  Traverse  limestone  cliffs. 

2.  Rocky  Mountain  Section.    Strata  dip  30  de- 
gress east.     On  granite  of  Pike's  Peak  is  basal 
Deadwood  sandstone  ("Potsdam",  or  Upper  Cam- 
bric),   30    ft.       Followed   by   Manitou   limestone 
(Beekmantown)  200  ft.;  hiatus;  Lower  Freemont 
limestone  (Trenton)  300  ft.;  hiatus;  Upper  Free- 
mont limestone  (Maquoketa)  100  ft.;  hiatus;  Mill- 
sap  limestone  (Mississippic)  400  ft.;  Fountain  red 


sandstones  and  shale  (Carbonic)  2000  ft.;  fault 
bringing  Upper  Fountain  beds  vertically  against  the 
others;  Chugwater  red  beds  (Triassic). 

MESOZOIG    SECTIONS. 
TRIASSIC    SYSTEM. 

Original  sub -division  in  Germany  threefold. 

3.      Upper  Trias  or  Keuper. 

2.  Middle  Trias  or  Muschelkalk. 

1.  Lower  Trias  or  Bunter  sandstone. 

1  and  3  continental  deposits;  2  is  marine.  In 
Alps  and  India  extensive  limestone  series  represent 
whole  Trias.  In  England  only  red  sandstones, 
called  New  Red  (in  part  Permic) .  Red  sandstones 
with  basalt  flows  and  intrusions  (Newark  system) 
of  Keuper  age,  in  eastern  North  America  from  Nova 
Scotia  to  Pennsylvania ;  coal  beds  in  place  of  basalt 
from  Pennsylvania  to  Carolina.  In  Western  U.  S. 
east  of  Cordillerans,  red  and  variegated  sand- 
stones form  principal  deposits,  sometimes  with  ex- 
tensive petrified  forests,  as  in  Arizona.  On  Pacific 
Coast  (California,  Nevada,  Oregon,  Idaho,  Utah), 
marine  limestone  with  Ceratites  occur. 

JURASSIC  SYSTEM. 

Named  from  occurrence  in  Jura  Mountains, 
mainly  limestones,  some  shales  and  sandstones. 
Upper  division  in  southern  Germany  contains  litho- 
graphic limestones. 

Typical  European  Succession. 

3.  Upper  or  White  Jura  or  Malm. 

2.  Middle  or  Brown  Jura  or  Dogger. 
1.     Lower  or  Black  Jura  or  Lias. 

41 


In  America  marine  limestones  and  shales  only  in 
Pacific  States,  with  arm  reaching  to  Black  Hills. 
Represents  only  part  of  series.  Along  Front  Range 
beds  are  of  continental  origin,  with  remains  of 
huge  reptiles  (Dinosaurs,  etc.)  Eastern  United 
States,  mainly  clays  and  sands. 

COMANCHIC  SYSTEM. 

Named  after  Comanche  tribe  of  Indians  in  South- 
ern U.  S.  where  system  is  best  developed.  Mostly 
limestones,  some  shales  and  sandstones. 

Typical  Succession. 

4.  Dakota  sandstone — transition  member. 

3.  Upper  Comanchic  or  Washita. 

2.  Middle  Comanchic  or  Fredericksburg. 

1.  Lower  Comanchic  or  Trinity. 

Most  typically  developed  in  Mexico,  Texas,  Okla- 
homa, North  to  Kansas.  On  Atlantic  Coast  mainly 
clays  and  sands.  In  Europe  limestones,  clays,  etc. 
Oreensands  and  clays  in  England. 

CRETACIC  SYSTEM. 

Named  from  occurence  of  chalk  (creta)  in  Eng- 
land and  France.  Chalk  composed  largely  of  fora- 
miniferal  shells.  Flint  concretions  in  layers.  In 
Central  United  States  mostly  shales  and  lime- 
stones; on  Atlantic  Coast,  clays,  sands  and  green- 
sands.  On  Pacific  Coast  mostly  shales. 

Characteristic  American  Succession. 

Upper  Cretacic  or  Laramian. 
Middle  Cretacic  or  Montanan. 

Fox  Hill  series. 

Pierre  series. 

42 


Lower  Cretacic  or  Coloradoan. 
Niobrara  series. 
Benton  series. 

Dakota  Sandstone,  transition  series. 


CHARACTERISTIC  SECTIONS. 

1.  From  the  Black  Forest  southwest  through 
the  Swabian  Alb  to  the  foot  of  the  Alps.  Strata  dip 
gently    southwest,    becoming    steeper    in    Upper 
Swabia,  where  they  form  broad  syncline  and  are 
turned  up  nearly  vertically  at  the  Alps  where  much 
faulting  and  thrusting  occurred. 

Begins  at  Rhine  Graben,  a  fault  valley  bounded 
by  step  faults  and  occupied  by  Oligocenic,  Pliocenic 
and  Quaternary  deposits.  Black  Forest  of 
gneisses  and  intrusives,  followed  by  Bunter  sand- 
stone, overlapping  Rothliegende  sandstone  of  Per- 
mic.  Succeeded  by  Muschelkalk,  and  Keuper. 
Neckar  Valley  and  Tubing  on  Muschelkalk;  hills 
beyond  of  Keuper  capped  by  Rhaetic  and  Lias  lime- 
stones  and  Marls.  Dogger-beds  seen  in  face  of 
Swabian  Alb  which  is  formed  by  great  limestone 
beds  of  White  Jura.  This  sinks  to  valley  of  Danube 
from  which  stream  to  the  Alps  is  a  broad  syncline 
of  Tertiary  and  Quaternary  strata.  In  Alps,  Ter- 
tiary is  much  faulted  with  steep  dips  and  over- 
thrusts  by  Cretacic  limestones  and  then  by  Triassic 
and  some  Jurassic  limestones,  all  strongly  folded. 

2.  Across  Central  England,  from  Pre-Cambric 
area  of  Long  Mynd  in  Shropshire  to  London.     On 
crystallines  rest  Cambric  dipping  steeply  east  fol- 
lowed   unconformably   by   Upper    Ordovicic    at    a 
lower  angle.     Then  with  another  slight  unconform- 
ity and  still  gentler  dip  follow  Siluric  shales  and 
limestones,  the  latter  forming  escarpment   (Wen- 

43 


lock  edge).  Followed  by  Ludlow  or  Upper  Siluric 
and  a  part  of  Old  Red  sandstone  into  which  it 
grades.  Then  with  a  disconformity  follow  Car- 
bonic Coal  Measures  and  some  Permic  red  sand- 
stone, all  dipping  gently  east.  Then  follows  New 
Red  Sandstone  forming  Worcester  lowland;  cross- 
ing the  Severn,  we  find  Lias  clays,  still  in  low  coun- 
try. Crossing  the  Avon  below  Stratford,  we  ascend 
the  Cotswold  hills,  a  much  dissected  escarpment  of 
Lower  Oolites.  Then  we  descend  to  valley  at  Ox- 
ford, formed  of  Middle  and  part  of  Upper  Oolites 
(Dogger  and  part  of  Malm)  which  are  here  mostly 
clays.  Hiatus,  cutting  out  part  of  Upper  Jura  and 
Lower  Comanchic.  Green  sand  and  Gault  clay  lie 
at  foot  of  Chiltern  Hills  escarpment,  capped  by 
white  chalk.  Descending  back  of  chalk  slope  we 
come  to  Eocenic  clays  and  sands  of  London  area — 
dipping  under  the  sea. 

3  Rocky  Mountains  (Bighorn  Mts.)  Beds  dip- 
ping 45°  east,  later  becoming  horizontal.  Rest  on 
granite.  Deadwood  sandstone  1000  ft.  (Cam- 
bric); Bighorn  limestone,  (Ordovicic)  100  ft.; 
hiatus;  Madison  limestone  500  ft.  (Mississippic) 
forms  ridges.  Carbonic  and  Permic  limestone  and 
sandstone  350  ft.;  Chugwater  red  beds  (Triassic) 
1200  ft.;  Sundance  (Marine  Jurassic)  450  ft. 
Morrison  (Continental  Jurassic)  250  ft.;  Dakota 
s.s.  100  ft.  Benton  shales  1300  ft.  Niobrara  lime- 
stone 200  ft.  Pierre  shales  2000  ft.  Fox  Hills 
beds  300  ft. ;  Laramie  beds  with  coal  3000  ft. ;  Ter- 
tiary (non  marine)  5000  ft. 

4.  New  Jersey  to  Connecticut  Valley,  showing 
Newark  system.  Rest  on  old  peneplain  surface  of 
schists  and  gneisses.  West  of  Hudson,  beds  dip  15 
or  20  degrees  west.  All  red  sandstones,  with  in- 

44 


eluded  sill  of  Palisade  diabase  near  bottom  and 
two  sheets  of  basalt  in  upper  part.  Becomes  very 
coarse  towards  border  of  crystallines.  Fault  at 
Hudson;  brings  shist  to  level  of  Cretacic  peneplain. 
In  Connecticut  Valley  beds  dip  east.  Several  faults 
traverse  it.  Lava  sheets  form  ridges.  Small  area 
of  down-faulted  Newark  30  miles  west  of  Connecti- 
cut Valley. 

5.  Atlantic  Coastal  Plain.  Strata  dipping 
gently  east.  Resting  unconformably  on  Pre-Cam- 
bric  and  on  folded  Triassic.  Potomac  formation 
camprising:  Patuxent  clays  100  ft.  Arundel  clays 
125  ft.  (Jurassic)  ;  Patapsco  240  ft.  (Comanchic)  ; 
Raritan  sand  400  ft.  (Dakota,  top  of  Comanchic)  ; 
Hiatus.  Ripleyan  500  ft.  (Middle  Cretacic). 
Jerseyan  175  ft.  (Upper  Cretacic);  Shark  River 
beds  (Eocenic). 

LABORATORY  WORK  WITH  TRIASSIC  AND 
JURASSIC  ROCKS  AND  FOSSILS. 

(Trays  D.   11-20). 

TRIASSIC. 

1.  Triassic  Sandstone.     Typical  of  Newark,  of 
Triassic  of  Western  America,  of  New  Red  Sand- 
stone of  England  and  of  Bunter  sandstone  of  Ger- 
many. 

2.  Fossil  fish.    Flattened  on  black  shale,  repre- 
senting temporary  water  bodies. 

2a.  Footprint  of  Dinosaur.  Impressions  and 
mold  of  same  from  Newark  sandstone. 

3.  Estheria.    Fossil  Branchiopod  crustacean — 
two-valved.    Fresh  water. 

45 


4.  Fossil  Wood.     Petrified  forest  of  Arizona, 
entirely  replaced  by  silica. 

4a.  Ceratites.  Muschelkalk,  Germany.  Note 
coiling  in  single  plane ;  heavy  ribs ;  sutures  of  many 
forward  bending  saddles  and  backward  bending 
lobes,  the  latter  serrated. 

4b.  Encrinus  liliiformis,  Muschelkalk,  Ger- 
many. Note  regular  arrangement  of  plates  of  calyx 
and  arms;  stem  of  alternating  joints. 

5.  Trap  Rock.     Characteristic  of  Newark  sys- 
tem.    Nova  Scotia  to  New  Jersey. 


JURASSIC. 

6.  Belemnites.       Note     ciger-shaped     guard; 
radial  structure  where  broken;  deep  conical  hollow 
for  insertion  of  actual  shell  or  phragmocone  (6a) 
(Western  America). 

7.  Gryphaea  incurva  Lias.    Very  convex  under 
valve,  with  incurved  beak;  upper  valve  small,  oper- 
culum-like.    Europe. 

8.  Ammonites  (Amaltheus)  margaritanus,  Lias. 
Coiling    in    single    plane,     laterally    compressed, 
whorls  somewhat  embracing;  ornamented  by  ribs. 
Keel  with  rope-like  ornamentation.     Suture  com- 
plex.     Europe. 

9.  Pentacrinus  stem,  Lias.    Joints  pentagonal, 
highly  ornate. 

9a.      Icthyosaurus,  Lias.     Fish  lizard.     Extinct 
marine  reptile.      Europe. 

46 


10.  Ammonites    (Stephanoceras)    humphries- 
ianus,  Dogger.     Note  rounded  whorls  partly  em- 
bracing— strong  ornamentation  on  inner  half  of 
whorls.      Europe. 

11.  Lithographic  Stone.     Malm,  with  floating 
crinoid,  and  dendritic  markings.     Solnhofen. 

12.  Fossil  Fish.     Malm.      Lithographic  lime- 
stone.    Solnhofen. 

12a.      Limulus,     or     Horseshoe     Crab,     Malm; 
Lithographic  limestone.     Solnhofen. 

12b.      Fossil  Dragon  Fly.     Malm.     Lithographic 
limestone.    Solnhofen. 


LABORATORY  WORK  WITH  COMANCHIC  AND 

CRETACIC  ROCKS  AND  FOSSILS. 

(Trays  E.  1-10). 

1.  Gryphaea  corrugata  (Comanchic).  Elongate 
deep  lower  valve,  with  incurved  beak,  broad  hinge 
area,  single  muscle  scar;  upper  valves  flat. 

2.  Leaf   of   Dicotyledonous   plant.      Cretacic, 
Dakota  sandstone,  form  often  outlined  in  precipi- 
tated iron  oxide. 

3.  Exogyra      costata      Cretacic:      Montanan. 
Lower  deep  valve  as  in  Gryphaea,  but  beak  twisted 
exteriorly  on  one  side.     Surface  ribbed. 

4.  Inoceramus   deformia.      Niobrara.      Large, 
coarse,  shell  thick,  of  prismatic  columns.     Surface 
with  strong  concentric  wrinkles. 

5.  Inoceramus  crispii.     Cretacic:     Montanan. 
Smaller  than  No.  4,  elongate,  shell  thinner:  con- 
centric wrinkles  marked. 

47 


6.  Gryphaea   convexa.      Ripleyan   of  Atlantic 
Coast.     Compare  with  No.  1.  beak  smaller,  less  in- 
curved. 

7.  Ostraea.    Laramie.     Differs  from  Gryphaea 
in  shallower  valve,  beak  not  incurved. 

8.  Ostrea  falcata.     Ripleyan.     Small  plicated, 
sickle -shaped  valves. 

9.  Exogyra     arietina.       Small;     lower    valve 
strongly  coiled,  resembling  some  gastropods. 

10.  Bacculites,     Montanan.      Straight,     com- 
pressed, septa  with  much  folded  margins. 

11.  Scaphites,    Montanan.      Coiled   in    single 
plane,  last  portion  somewhat  loosely  coiled;  shell 
with  ribbed  and  in  older  specimens,  noded  exterior. 

12.  TerebrateUa.       Shell    with    symmetrical, 
strongly  plicated  valves,  straight  but  narrow  hinge 
area. 

13.  Greensand.        (Glauconite).        Cretacic. 
Mostly  formed  as  internal  molds  of  foraminiferal 
shells.     Wide  spread  in  Cretacic. 

14.  Chalk.     Composed  largely  of  foraminiferal 
shells  (see  slide)  characteristic  of  Upper  Cretacic 
of  Western  Europe. 

15.  Flint  Nodules.     Occur  in  layers  in  chalk. 
Often  accumulate  around  a  sponge  or  other  organ- 
ism as  nucleus. 

16.  Laramie   plant.        Characteristic   of  coal 
swamps  of  Laramie  time. 

U 


CENOZOIC  (TERTIARY).     SYSTEMS. 

The  early  division,  made  in  1828,  by  Lyell,  was 
into  Eocene  (dawn  of  recent,  with  31/-.  per  cent,  of 
recent  species  of  shells).  Miocene  (medial  recent 
17  per  cent,  recent  species),  and  Pliocene  (late 
recent,  with  35  to  50%  of  recent  species).  These 
percentages  are  no  longer  relied  upon.  Oligiocene 
coined  subsequently  by  Beyrich  for  part  of  Upper 
Eocene  and  Lower  Miocene  of  North  Germany. 

Two  types  of  sedimentation — the  marine  and 
the  non-marine.  In  North  America  marine  confined 
to  Atlantic  and  Gulf  coasts.  In  Europe,  more  widely 
spread,  but  generally  in  basins,  Eocenic  best  de- 
veloped in  London,  Hampshire  and  Paris  Basins. 
Oligocenic  in  North  Germany  widespread  but  mostly 
under  cover — in  the  Rhine  Valley  especially  at 
Mainz  and  Cassel,  etc.  Miocenic  especially  in 
Vienna  Basin,  and  in  Western  France,  and  Pliocenic 
especially  in  Italy.  In  America  marine  Oligocenic 
and  Pliocenic  are  best  developed  on  Gulf  Coast. 

Characteristic  Sections. 

1.  Atlantic    Coastal    Plain.      Dipping    gently 
eastward,  resting  discomformably  on  Ripleyan  Cre- 
tacic.       Pamunkey     sands     and     clays     (marine 
Eocenic)     200    ft.;    hiatus;    Oligocenic    wanting. 
Chesapeake   sands   and  clays    (marine   Miocenic) 
400  ft.;  Lafayette  (Pliocenic,  non-marine)  50  ft.; 
Columbia  gravels  (Pleistocenic)  30ft. 

2.  Gulf  Coast.    Dipping  gently  southward  rest- 
ing discomformably  on  Ripleyan  Cretacic.  Eocenic: 
Claytonian  limestone,   etc.   200  ft.;  Chickasawan 
sands  and  lignites,  900  ft.;  Buhrstone  beds,  300 
ft.;  Claiborne  formation  140  ft.;  Jacksonian  lime- 
stone,  150  ft.     Oligocenic:      Vicksburg  limestone 
200  ft.    Chattahoochee  beds,  70  ft. ;  Chipola  marls 

49 


50  ft.  Miocenic:  Chesapeakian,  etc.  80  ft.;  Plio- 
cenic  Caloosahatchie  beds  50  ft.  Pleistocenic, 
gravels  and  Loess  100  ft. 

3..  Great  Basin  and  Plains  Sections.  These  are 
horizontal  strata  of  terrestrial  origin — mostly 
fluvial  or  eolian,  and  not  always  represented  in  the 
same  locality.  The  succession  from  below  up  is: 
Eocenic  4600  ft.  divided  into:  Puerco  500  ft.;  Tor- 
rejon  300  ft.  Wasatch  200  ft.  Wind  River  800 
ft.  Bridger  2000  ft.  Uinta  800  ft.  Oligocenic 
1300  ft.  Comprising  only  the  White  River  800  ft., 
and  the  Lower  John  Day  about  500  ft.  Miocenic, 
1000  ft.  J-  comprising  the  Upper  John  Day  500  ft. 
the  Deep  River  150  ft.;  the  Loup  Fork  400  ft. 
Pliocenic,  comprising  only  the  Blanco  formation 
150  ft.  and  Pleistocenic  represented  by  the  Sheri- 
dan beds  100  ft.  thick. 

LABORATORY   WORK    WITH   CENOZOIC    (TER- 
TIARY) AND  PSYCHOZOIC  (QUATERNARY) 
FOSSILS. 

1.  TurriteUa  mortoni;  Eocenic.  Internal  mold 
—  note  spiral  coil. 

la.      Turritella  mortoni,  shell;  Eocenic,  whorls 
with  spiral  ornamentation. 

2.  Terebratula,  Eocenic.    Unequal  but  bilater- 
ally symmetrical  valves,  large  formamen  of  pedicle 
valve,  surface  smooth. 

3.  Nummulites,  Eocenic.  Note  form;  compare 
section  in  Trays  A  1-10,  Europe. 

4.  Cerithium.     Eocenic,  compare  with  Turri- 
tella.    Note  greater  ornamentation  and  notch  in 
lip. 

50 


5.  Lamna — Sharks  tooth.     Eocenic. 

6.  Lamna — vertebra— Eocenic;  bi-concave. 

7.  Turritella,  Miocenic,  compare  with  1  and  la. 

8.  Crepidula,   Miocenic.      Spire   small  on  one 
side.    Broad  shelf-like  columella. 

9.  Area,  Miocenic.      Note  teeth  and  hinge  area 

10.  Area,  Miocenic.      Compare  with  9. 

11.  Chama,    Miocenic.      Roughly   coiled,    lower 
valve,  upper  valve  flat,  two  muscle  scars,  surface 
rough. 

12.  Glycimeris   (Pectunculus),  Miocenic.  Near- 
ly round  symmetrical  valves,  note  hinge  teeth  and 
area,  compare  with  9 ;  Surface  with  plications. 

13.  Lucina,  Miocenic,  compare  with  12. 

14.  Crassatellites,   Miocenic.      Elongate  strong 
hinge  teeth,  peculiar  form. 

15.  Pecten,    Miocenic.      Note    form    and    size. 
Nearly  symmetrical,  strong  ornamented  plications. 

16.  Maretia,    Oligocenic;    form;    disposition   of 
ambulacral  areas,  mouth,  anus,  etc. 

17.  Cladophyllia,    Pliocenic.      Long   cylindrical, 
septa  in  multiples  of  six. 

18.  Saxicava,      Pleistocenic,      elongate      shell, 
rough  exterior. 


51 


5-42 


Date  Due 


PHINTIO   IN    U    •    . 


CAT    NO    24    161 


LIBRARY  FACILITY 


000826383     2 


